HIV and AIDS in Asia

In the early to mid-1980s, while other parts of the world were beginning to deal with serious HIV and AIDS epidemics, Asia remained relatively unaffected. By the early 1990s, however, AIDS epidemics had emerged in several Asian countries, and by the end of the decade, HIV was spreading rapidly in many areas of the continent.

Today, around 4.79 million people are living with HIV in South, East and South-East Asia.1 Although national HIV prevalence in most Asian countries is relatively low, the population of some countries is so vast that these low percentages actually represent very large numbers of people living with HIV. In India, for example, an estimated 0.1 percent of adults aged 15-49 are living with HIV, which seems low when compared to HIV prevalence in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa. However, with a population of around 1 billion, this actually equates to 2.3 million adults living with HIV in India.2 Nonetheless, the situation is improving; the number of new infections in Asia went down from 450,000 in 2001 to 360,000 in 20103 and in India the rates have fallen by 56 percent since 2006.4

back to top Regional overview

Although it is useful to understand the overall impact that AIDS is having on the Asian region as a whole, there is no single ‘Asian epidemic’; each country in the region faces a different situation. Progress has been made in countries such as Cambodia, Myanmar and Thailand, where there has been evidence of a decline in HIV prevalence. On the other hand, in Indonesia, Pakistan and Vietnam the number of people living with HIV has increased.5 6 7 There are also huge variations within countries. In China, for example, five provinces account for 53 percent of the people living with HIV.8

Asia has had the largest AIDS-related death toll outside of sub-Saharan Africa.9 Some have warned that epidemics in Asia could escalate to the extent of rivalling those in some parts of Africa. Others, however, argue that Asia's epidemics are on a different trajectory to those found in Africa, as HIV infection in Asia is still largely concentrated among members of 'high-risk' groups.

back to top How is HIV transmitted in Asia?

There are three main HIV transmission routes in Asia:

  • Unprotected paid (and unpaid) sex. Unprotected sex, both paid and unpaid, accounts for a significant share of new HIV infections in many Asian countries. Clients of sex workers make up the largest key population at higher risk;10 between 0.5 and 15 percent of men buy sex regularly11 and the level of condom use during paid sex in many countries is still low. These factors have contributed to a high HIV prevalence among sex workers and their clients across Asia. In addition, an increasing number of women who are married and considered ‘low-risk’ of HIV infection are becoming infected with HIV.12 Estimates suggest that around 25-40 percent of new HIV infections in several Asian countries are among wives and girlfriends of men who became infected through paid sex, having sex with other men or injecting drugs.13
  • Injecting drug use. Injecting drug use is a major driving factor in the spread of HIV throughout Asia, notably in China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. In China, nearly half of all people infected with HIV are believed to have become infected through injecting drug use, and in North-East India injecting drug use is the most common HIV transmission route.14 There is often an overlap between communities of IDUs and communities of sex workers in Asia, as those who sell sex may do it to fund a drug habit, or they may have become involved in sex work first before turning to drug use.
  • Sex between men. Sex between men accounted for some of the earliest recorded cases of HIV in Asia, and transmission through this route is still a prominent feature of many countries’ epidemics. Most men who have sex with men (MSM) in Asia do not identify themselves as gay because of cultural norms that discourage homosexuality; in some cases they may even be heads of families, with children.15 This means that MSM can serve as a ‘bridge’ for HIV to spread into the broader population. New factors appear to be affecting the spread of HIV among MSM such as Internet dating, soft drug use, mobility and other forms of social change.16 HIV outbreaks are becoming evident among MSM in Cambodia, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam, India, Indonesia, Myanmar and the Philippines.17 18

Mother-to-child transmission is also a significant HIV transmission route in Asia. At the end of 2010, it was estimated that 150,000 children in South and South-East Asia, and 8,000 children in East Asia, were living with HIV, most of whom became infected through mother-to-child transmission.19

back to top HIV prevention in Asia

HIV prevention sign in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam HIV prevention sign in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Asia has been the base for some extremely successful large-scale HIV prevention programmes. Well-funded, politically supported campaigns in Thailand and Cambodia have led to significant declines in HIV-infection levels, and HIV prevention aimed at sex workers and their clients has played a large role in these achievements.20 21 In Tamil Nadu, India, HIV prevention initiatives have had a substantial impact. High-profile public campaigns discouraged risky sexual behaviour, made condoms more widely available, and provided STI testing and treatment for people who needed them. These efforts resulted in a large decline in risky sex.22

Successes such as these prove that interventions can change the course of Asia's AIDS epidemics. As HIV infection rates continue to grow however, it's clear that more needs to be done. The groups most at risk of becoming infected – sex workers, IDUs, and MSM – are all too often being neglected. It is suggested that in order for Asia's epidemic to stabilize, interventions should cover between 60 and 80 percent of individuals considered high risk.23 For instance, although injecting drug use is one of the most common HIV transmission routes in Asia, it is estimated that less than one in ten IDUs in the region have access to prevention services.24 25 Similarly men who have sex with men are overlooked and poorly monitored by most governments, even though it is firmly established that this group play a significant role in some countries’ epidemics.26 Despite this, globally, the South and South East Asian region performed the worst in terms of the delivery of HIV prevention to MSM.27

"In countries without laws to protect sex workers, drug users, and men who have sex with men, only a fraction of the population has access to prevention. Conversely, in countries with legal protection and the protection of human rights for these people, many more have access to services. As a result, there are fewer infections, less demand for antiretroviral treatment, and fewer deaths. Not only is it unethical not to protect these groups: it makes no sense from a health perspective."Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, speaking at the opening address to the International AIDS Conference28

It is not only legal barriers that are preventing people from accessing effective HIV prevention; problems also arise when prevention programmes do not contain information that will be most useful. For example, young people in Asia are generally not taught about the kinds of behaviours that put this group most at risk: unprotected sex through sex work, injecting drug use, and sex between men. Instead they focus on heterosexual transmission and reproductive health, which have a limited impact on preventing new HIV infections among young people in Asia.29

The coverage of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services is also very low in Asia. In East, South and South-East Asia, around 30% of pregnant women were offered an HIV test in 2010.  This was a great improvement compared to the 18% of 2009, but still a very low percentage compared to other regions of the world such as Eastern Europe and Central Asia (59%), Eastern and Southern Africa (61%) and Latin America and the Caribbean (61%).30 In 2010 across East, South and South-East Asia, only 16% of HIV-infected pregnant women received ARVs (excluding single-dose nevirapine) to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV.31

See our HIV prevention around the world page for more about efforts to stem the spread of HIV in Asia and other parts of the world.

Due to the stigma that often surrounds those groups most at risk of HIV infection, coverage of HIV voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) services in South-East Asia remains very low. An estimated 0.1% of the adult population in the region received testing and counselling in 2005.32 Certain countries are making progress, however; testing services in India have been expanded with about 5135 testing centres now open to the public.33 Even so, far more needs to be done across Asia to ensure VCT is available to those most at risk of acquiring HIV.

back to top Antiretroviral treatment in Asia

An HIV positive man sitting at home before taking his antiretroviral drugs An HIV positive man sitting at home in Cambodia before taking his antiretroviral treatment

The availability of antiretroviral treatment more than tripled between 2003 and 2006 in Asia.34 Although this seems encouraging, only 39% of people in East, South and South-East Asia who are in need of HIV treatment are receiving it.35 In addition, access to HIV treatment varies widely across the region. Thailand and Cambodia have an estimated treatment coverage of 67% and 92% respectively, whilst estimated treatment coverage in Malaysia and the Philippines is 36% and 51%.36

A major barrier to treatment access is the high cost of antiretroviral drugs, as both first- and second-line drugs are still unaffordable to many governments. Cheaper HIV drugs are now produced by a number of pharmaceutical manufacturers in Asia, and together with the increasing availability of lower-cost branded ARVs, it will be easier for governments to obtain and distribute the drugs. Yet even where drugs are available, the poor state of healthcare in many Asian countries, particularly a shortage of trained doctors, is hindering governments' abilities to organise life-long treatment programmes for millions of people living with HIV.37

back to top South East Asia

Cambodia

Cambodia’s HIV epidemic can be traced back to 1991. After an initial rapid increase, HIV infection levels declined after the late 1990s and by 2003 HIV prevalence was estimated at 1.2%.38 Results published in 2009 from the first national population-based survey estimated HIV prevalence at 0.6%.39 It’s believed that interventions with sex workers, carried out by the government and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), played a role in this decline. The adoption of a ‘100% condom’ policy that enforced condom use in brothels led to a substantial rise in condom use among sex workers and their clients and a drop in HIV infection levels among brothel-based sex workers. The use of condoms rose from 40 percent in 1997 to 90 percent in 2010 and new infections dropped to 2,000 per year. UNAIDS estimate that without the prevention efforts, this figure would have been more than 50,000.40 However, ongoing concerns include low levels of condom use among MSM, an increase in sex work occurring outside of brothels (making it harder to reach sex workers with interventions), and mother-to-child transmission of HIV – around one third of new infections occur through this route. HIV is mostly transmitted through heterosexual sex in Cambodia, and concerns are growing about the number of married women who are infected through their husband.41

Indonesia

Around 314,000 people are living with HIV in Indonesia, which has the fastest growing epidemic in Asia.42 This number has risen sharply in recent years and is expected to more than double by 2014 if approaches to HIV prevention are not improved.43 This rise is due to several factors including: the country’s extensive sex industry; limited testing and treatment clinics; a highly mobile population; a rapidly growing population of people who inject drugs; and the challenges created by major economic and natural crises (the Asian financial crisis heavily affected the country in 1997, and the 2004 Tsunami devastated parts of Northern Sumatra, the largest island in Indonesia).

High levels of HIV infection are found amongst high-risk groups, such as injecting drug users, sex workers and their clients and to a lesser extent, men who have sex with men.44 In 2012, HIV prevalence was reported as high as 36 percent among people who inject drugs.45 However, local regulations often criminalize high-risk groups and it has been identified that some members of the National AIDS Commission, responsible for tackling HIV/AIDS in Indonesia, are failing to address the issue of HIV/AIDS among high-risk groups.46 47 Additionally, campaigns to promote condom use among people who engage in high-risk sex have met resistance from some religious groups, who feel that condoms should only be promoted to married couples.48

In 2012, the Indonesian government issued compulsory licenses allowing local drug companies to legally bypass drug patents and make their own, cheaper versions for the treatment of HIV and Hepatitis.49 This development will hopefully increase access to affordable ARV drugs. Currently only 24 percent of people with HIV in Indonesia have access to treatment, with coverage falling even lower among children; the number of children eligible for treatment who are receiving it is estimated to be as low as 11 percent.50

Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos)

Despite being surrounded by countries that have relatively high HIV infection levels (Thailand, China, Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar), Laos has a comparatively small HIV problem. There are various reasons for this: the government was quick to acknowledge AIDS when it first emerged in the country, and took action to warn people about it; Laos has not seen the same level of large-scale migration that has occurred in other parts of Asia; there are relatively high rates of condom use among sex workers and their clients; and it’s thought that very few people in the country inject drugs.51 52 However in recent years there has been an increase of HIV infection among the most vulnerable groups, especially MSM and migrant workers.53

An HIV prevention billboard in Malaysia An HIV prevention billboard in Malaysia

Malaysia

HIV and AIDS statistics from Malaysia show that an estimated 0.5 percent of the population are living with HIV.54 Although most people infected with HIV in the country are male, there has been a steep increase in the number of new cases among women. During the late 1990s women made up around 5 percent of new infections, compared to around 20 percent in 2006.

Malaysia's epidemic is largely driven by injecting drug use, but heterosexual transmission is accounting for an increasing number of new infections. Recent trends have demonstrated a promising decrease in annual HIV infections, from 7,000 in 2002 to 5,830 in 2006.55 In 2006 the government launched a five-year strategic plan to tackle HIV, which includes drug substitution therapy and needle exchange programmes for drug users.56 In 2009, 5,800 people died from AIDS in Malaysia.57

In 2012, the Indonesian government issued compulsory licenses allowing local drug companies to legally bypass drug patents and make their own, cheaper versions for the treatment of HIV and Hepatitis.58 This development will hopefully increase access to affordable ARV drugs (link). Currently only 24 percent of people with HIV in Indonesia have access to treatment, with coverage falling even lower among children as only 11-14percent of children eligible to begin treatment are receiving it.59

Myanmar (Burma)

Myanmar is facing a serious epidemic - an estimated 240,000 of the population is infected with HIV.60 Myanmar’s authoritarian military regime is widely condemned for its human rights abuses, and in 2005 these concerns led the Global Fund to fight AIDS, TB & Malaria, to withdraw its proposed $98.4 million grants for the country.61 Prevention services for injecting drug users are severely lacking with needle exchange programmes operating in just a few locations. Drug users are dealt with heavy-handedly and crackdowns on drug production have led to a scarcity of opium and heroin. This has resulted in drug inhalation being replaced by injecting, as a more cost-effective way of drug consumption, carrying with it a higher risk of HIV transmission. In 2006 methadone substitution therapy was introduced in a small number of government locations.62 Furthermore, in some cities the HIV prevalence among MSM is extremely high with 23.5 percent of MSM infected with HIV in Yangon and 35 percent infected in Mandalay.63 However, in 2011 Myanmar implemented a four-year plan to use mass media as a tool for HIV education and reducing discrimination around HIV and AIDS.64

The Philippines

An estimated 8,700 people were living with HIV in The Philippines in 2009.65 The country has traditionally had a very low HIV prevalence, with under 0.1% of the population infected. Even in groups such as sex workers and MSM that are typically associated with higher levels of HIV, prevalence rates above 1% have not yet been detected.66 In the case of sex workers, this is possibly due to efforts to screen and treat those selling sex since the early 1990s. However, there are reasons to believe that this situation may not last. In early 2010 the Department of Health in the Philippines stated the country was now on the brink of a "concentrated epidemic", due to a rise in prevalence.67 Condom use is not the norm in paid sex, drug users commonly share injecting equipment in some areas, and among Filipino youth, there is evidence of complacency about AIDS.68 69 National HIV prevalence among the most at risk populations which includes sex workers, men who have sex with men and injecting drug users, has increased more than five fold from 0.08 % in 2007 to 0.47 % in 2009.70

Singapore

Although the number of people living with HIV in Singapore is relatively small, the country’s status as an international travel and business hub, along with the high number of infections found in surrounding countries, make it possible that the country will experience a more serious epidemic in the future. The number of annual new infections has been rising in Singapore. In 2008, a record 456 people were newly diagnosed with HIV, compared to 357 in 2006.71 The majority of these new infections (50%) are diagnosed at a late-stage of HIV infection, by which point HIV treatment should already have started. To combat these rising figures, the government has chosen to focus on preventing mother-to-child transmission, but controversially, has rejected widespread condom promotion.72 Another controversial policy in Singapore is the strict law banning sex between men, which campaigners argue undermines efforts to promote safe sex among MSM.73 74 This is concerning considering the rising number of HIV infections among MSM (38 HIV infections in 2002, compared with 185 in 2008).75

Thailand

HIV and AIDS education programme for young people in Thailand AIDS education for young people in Thailand

Thailand is an example of a country where a strong national commitment to tackling the HIV and AIDS epidemic has paid off, with an admirable history of HIV prevention efforts. However, some of these past prevention successes are starting to be undermined by a current lack of HIV prevention and rising STD rates. New infections are highest among MSM and women who have become infected by their husbands or sexual partners.76 Increases in HIV prevalence among MSM is particularly marked in Bangkok, where HIV prevalence among this group has risen from 17.3% in 2003 to 30.8% in 2007.77 An estimated 530,000 people are now living with HIV and AIDS in Thailand.78

Vietnam

Around 280,000 people are living with HIV and AIDS in Vietnam.79 Vietnam's epidemic is still in a concentrated phase; injecting drug users, female sex workers and men who have sex with men are the groups primarily affected.80 The number of people living with HIV in Vietnam doubled between 2000 and 2005. This rise included a large increase in the number of people who became infected through injecting drug use.81 Despite a five-year nationwide campaign to improve condom use among one of Vietnam's most at risk groups, sex workers, condom use remains disappointingly low.82 Continued difficulty in accessing prevention services is among a number of factors that undermine HIV prevention efforts among high risk groups. Laws that criminalise sex workers and drug users often cause people that fall under these groups to fear accessing HIV prevention services; in Vietnam, the enforcement of such laws has lead to the incarceration of people in detention centers.83 Reassuringly, laws that protect the rights of these groups have recently been implemented.84

Adults and children living with HIV in Vietnam still face high levels of stigma and discrimination.85 One reason for this is that HIV is often strongly associated with immorality. The connection between HIV and ‘social evils’ is exacerbated through the official use of this type of language, with HIV and AIDS falling under the remit of the Government ‘Department of Social Evils Prevention'.86 One reported result of this stigma is that people living with HIV remain untreated due to a fear of being seen taking medication, and their status being publicly discovered.87 In order to dispel myths and misconceptions about HIV life skills-based HIV education needs to be taught in schools. However, only a third of schools in Vietnam were providing this education in 2009.88

See our South East Asian statistics page for more data on this region.

back to top East Asia

China

China’s first AIDS case was reported in Beijing in 1985. Today, an estimated 740,000 people in China are living with HIV89 and it is feared this number will increase dramatically in future years, as HIV spreads from the groups most at risk to the general population.90 In 2009 an estimated 26,000 people died from AIDS in China.91

Yunnan, Guangxi, Henan, Sichuan, Xingiang and Guangdong are most affected, representing around 70 to 80 percent of the national reported number of HIV and AIDS cases.92

Find out more about HIV and AIDS in China.

Japan

In 2009, around 8,100 adults and children were living with HIV in Japan.93 Data released by the Japanese government in February 2007 showed that annual numbers of new HIV infections and AIDS cases had risen to an all time high in 2006, to 914 and 390 people respectively.94 In 2008, this number rose again: there were a total 1,126 new cases of people living with HIV registered that year.95 MSM are particularly affected as they account for around 66% of annually reported HIV infections in Japan.96 97

back to top South Asia

Afghanistan

Afghanistan is one of the world’s leading producers of opium, and drugs are widely available. The use of opiates, such as heroin and opium, has seen a dramatic increase over the last four years with a 53 percent rise in the number of regular opium users and a 140 percent rise in the number of heroin users in the period 2005 to 2009.98 Further to this, a study of three major cities in 2009 found HIV prevalence among IDUs had more than doubled since 2006.99 As a result, Afghanistan is now considered to have a concentrated epidemic.100 It is estimated that 8 percent of the adult population use drugs, yet only 10 percent of drug users access harm reduction services.101 Moreover, awareness of the risk of HIV transmission is low among this high risk group, particularly among young IDUs. A study found that 85 percent of IDUs interviewed shared a needle or syringe when injecting drugs.102

Prevalence among the general population is less than 0.5 percent, based on the most recent data available.103 However, HIV surveillance is minimal. Conditions are in place for a generalised epidemic to develop, including high numbers of displaced people, high levels of illiteracy, low social status of women, and a shortage of health facilities. The epidemic among high risk groups must be curbed to avoid HIV bridging into the wider population.

Bangladesh

The first HIV/AIDS case in Bangladesh was reported in 1989. Since 1994, HIV infection levels have increased, although the problem is still relatively small scale, with around 6,300 people infected.104 It is nonetheless predicted that Bangladesh may gradually be heading towards an epidemic, unless a greater response is developed. At the moment HIV is mainly confined to groups such as IDUs, migrant workers and MSM, and it is reported that this focus on risk groups has led to a lack of urgency among policy makers in dealing with the problem.105 However, in Dhaka, harm reduction programmes have been credited with slowing the spread of HIV among people who inject drugs. HIV prevalence in this population rose from 1.4 percent in 2000 to 7 percent in 2007, but thereafter dropped to 5.3 percent in 2011, well below the levels observed in areas without prevention programmes.106

India

AIDS activists campaigning against HIV-related discrimination in Pune, India Activists campaigning against HIV-related discrimination in India

India is experiencing a diverse HIV epidemic that affects states in different ways, and to different extents. India's most affected groups include injecting drug users, sex workers, truck drivers, migrant workers, and men who have sex with men. Some have predicted that India will soon be experiencing a ‘generalised’ epidemic, where the HIV prevalence rate - currently 0.3% among adults in India107 - rises above 1%. Others have played down current estimates of the numbers infected, and have argued that, because HIV transmission in India still largely occurs among risk groups, it is unlikely that HIV will spread widely among the general population.108 Regardless of the future path of India’s epidemic, it is undeniable that AIDS is having a devastating impact, and that there are still many major issues – including stigma and poor availability of AIDS treatment – that urgently need to be addressed.

Nepal

An estimated 64,000 people are living with HIV and AIDS in Nepal, including 0.4% of the adult population.109 HIV is primarily transmitted through injecting drug use and unprotected sex. Seasonal labour migration is an important source of income for many Nepalese, but it is associated with a higher risk of HIV infection and nearly 50% of total HIV infections are recorded along the highway districts of country.110 Around 41% of all HIV cases in Nepal are among seasonal labour migrants, 16% are clients of sex workers and 21% are partners or wives of HIV positive men.111 The Nepalese government have responded to the epidemic despite political instability; in 2009 Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal said the government would increase resources and actions for preventing, treating and controlling the country's epidemic.112 However, at the end of 2010 the proportion of eligible people receiving antiretroviral therapy was below 20 percent.113

Pakistan

Pakistan’s first reported case of HIV occurred in 1987. Until the late 1990s, most subsequent cases occurred in men who had become infected while living or working abroad. The most at risk populations in Pakistan include injecting drug users, sex workers and prisoners.114 Despite a low adult HIV prevalence (0.1%115 ), social and economic conditions in Pakistan – including poverty, low levels of education, and high levels of risk behaviour among IDUs and sex workers – are likely to facilitate the spread of HIV in coming years.116 HIV prevalence among IDUs has already significantly increased - from 10.8 percent in 2005 to 21 percent in 2008.117 Hijra (transgender) sex workers are also disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS in Pakistan; HIV prevalence among this group is 6.1 %.118

Nominet Winner 2012

References back to top

  1. UNAIDS (2011) 'UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011'
  2. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  3. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  4. UNAIDS (2011) 'UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011'
  5. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  6. Rao, P et al. (2010) 'AIDS in Asia amid competing priorities: a review of national responses to HIV' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S41-S48
  7. UNAIDS (2011) 'UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011'
  8. UNAIDS (2011) 'UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011'
  9. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  10. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  11. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  12. UNAIDS (2009) 'HIV transmission in intimate partner relationships in Asia'
  13. The Commission on AIDS in Asia (2008) 'Redefining AIDS in Asia: Crafting an effective response'.
  14. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  15. UNAIDS (2006) 'HIV and men who have sex with men in Asia and Pacific'
  16. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  17. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  18. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  19. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  20. van Griensven, F and de Lind van Wijingaarden, J (2010) 'A review of the epidemiology of HIV infection and prevention responses among MSM in Asia' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S30-S40
  21. Rao, P et al. (2010) 'AIDS in Asia amid competing priorities: a review of national responses to HIV' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S41-S48
  22. MAP (2004) 'AIDS in Asia: Face the Facts'
  23. van Griensven, F and de Lind van Wijingaarden, J (2010) 'A review of the epidemiology of HIV infection and prevention responses among MSM in Asia' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S30-S40
  24. Reuters (2007, May 14th) 'Asian drug users need more HIV prevention help'
  25. Rao, P et al. (2010) 'AIDS in Asia amid competing priorities: a review of national responses to HIV' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S41-S48
  26. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  27. van Griensven, F and de Lind van Wijingaarden, J (2010) 'A review of the epidemiology of HIV infection and prevention responses among MSM in Asia' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S30-S40
  28. UN News Centre (2008) 'Address to the International AIDS Conference', Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon's speech.
  29. UNICEF (2009) 'Preventing HIV with young people: the key to tackling the epidemic'
  30. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  31. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  32. WHO (2007), 'HIV/AIDS in the South-East Asia Region' [PDF]
  33. UNGASS (2010, March 31st) 'India Country Progress Report'
  34. UNAIDS (2006) 'Asia factsheet'.
  35. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  36. WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF (2011) ‚'Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards Universal Access 2011'
  37. AMFAR/TREAT Asia (2004), 'Expanded Availability of HIV/AIDS Drugs in Asia Creates Urgent Need for Trained Doctors'
  38. UNGASS (2008) 'UNGASS country progress report: Cambodia', National AIDS Authority, Kingdom of Cambodia
  39. Heng, S., Vonthanak, S., Chhorvann, C. & Knut, F (2009) 'Distribution of HIV in Cambodia: findings from the first national population survey', AIDS, 17 July 2009; 23, 11; 1389-1395
  40. UNAIDS (2011) 'UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011'
  41. Heng, S., Vonthanak, S., Chhorvann, C. & Knut, F (2009) 'Distribution of HIV in Cambodia: findings from the first national population survey', AIDS, 17 July 2009; 23, 11; 1389-1395
  42. UNGASS (2010) 'Indonesia Country Progress Report'
  43. JakartaGlobe (2010, 7th October) 'The Thinker: The State of AIDS'
  44. UNGASS (2006-2007) 'Country report on the follow up to the Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS', National AIDS Commission, Republic of Indonesia
  45. Harm Reduction International (2012) 'The Global State of Harm Reduction: Towards an Integrated Response'
  46. JakartaGlobe (2010, 7th October) 'The Thinker: The State of AIDS'
  47. JakartaGlobe (2010, 30th September) 'Disbelief After Tifatul's Tweets Poking Fun at Gays and HIV'
  48. PlusNews (2012, 26th July) 'INDONESIA: Condom controversy continues'
  49. The Guardian (2012) 'Indonesia in bold move to obtain cheap drugs for HIV'
  50. WH0 (2011) 'Progress report 2011: Global HIV/AIDS response'
  51. BBC news (2002, October), 'Can Laos keep AIDS at bay?'
  52. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  53. UNGASS (2010) 'UNGASS country progress report', Lao People's Democratic Republic - National Committee for the Control of AIDS
  54. UNGASS (2010) 'Malaysia Country progress report'
  55. UNGASS (2008) 'Country progress report'
  56. Associated Press (2007, February), 'HIV spreading rapidly in Malaysia'
  57. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  58. The Guardian (2012) 'Indonesia in bold move to obtain cheap drugs for HIV'
  59. WH0 Author (2011) ' Progress report 2011: Global HIV/AIDS response'
  60. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  61. Global Fund Press release (2005, August), The Global Fund terminates grants to Myanmar
  62. Asian Harm Reduction Network, 'Civil Society Reflections on 10 Years of Drug Control in Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam: A Shadow Report' from International Harm Reduction Development Program, Open Society Institute (2009, March), 'At What Cost?: HIV and Human Rights Consequences of the Global War on Drugs'
  63. van Griensven, F and de Lind van Wijingaarden, J (2010) 'A review of the epidemiology of HIV infection and prevention responses among MSM in Asia' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S30-S40
  64. The Lancet (2011, December 17th) 'This Week In Medicine', Lancet 378(9809)
  65. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  66. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  67. Malaya (2010, 8th April) 'Critical point reached on HIV/AIDS'
  68. UNGASS (2008) 'Country report of the Philippines', Philippine National AIDS Council
  69. Farr, A.C & Wilson, D.P (2010, 22nd April) 'An HIV epidemic is ready to emerge in the Philippines', Journal of the International AIDS Society 2010, 13:16
  70. UNGASS (2010) 'Indonesia Country Progress Report
  71. UNGASS (2010) 'Singapore Country Progress Report'
  72. AFP/AEGiS (2007), 'Singapore's HIV/AIDS cases rise by record levels in 2006'
  73. Medical news today (2004), 'Singapore sees rise in AIDS cases, takes new measures'
  74. BBC News (2007, 23rd October) 'Singapore retains its gay sex ban'
  75. van Griensven, F and de Lind van Wijingaarden, J (2010) 'A review of the epidemiology of HIV infection and prevention responses among MSM in Asia' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S30-S40
  76. UNGASS (2008) 'Country progress report', National AIDS Prevention and Alleviation Committee
  77. van Griensven, F and de Lind van Wijingaarden, J (2010) 'A review of the epidemiology of HIV infection and prevention responses among MSM in Asia' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S30-S40
  78. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  79. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  80. UNGASS (2008) 'The third country report on following up the implementation to the declaration of commitment on HIV and AIDS', The Socialist Republic of Vietnam
  81. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  82. VietNam News (2011, 28th April) 'High-risk groups fail to heed HIV advice'
  83. Global Commission on HIV and the Law (2012) 'Bad Laws Hamper Global AIDS Fight'
  84. UNAIDS (2012) 'Alternative action on compulsory detention: Innovative responses in Asia'
  85. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam (2010) 'The fourth country report on following up the implementation to the declaration of commitment on HIV and AIDS'
  86. Pharris-Ciurej A. (2011) 'HIV-related stigma in Vietnam'.
  87. Pharris-Ciurej A. (2011) 'HIV-related stigma in Vietnam'.
  88. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam (2010) 'The fourth country report on following up the implementation to the declaration of commitment on HIV and AIDS'
  89. UNGASS (2010) 'China 2010 UNGASS Country Progress Report (2008-2009)'
  90. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  91. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  92. Ministry of Health, People's Republic of China/UNAIDS/WHO (2010, 31st May) '2009 estimates for the HIV/AIDS epidemic in China'
  93. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  94. Kyodo news (2007, February 7th), 'Japan reports record new HIV infections, AIDS patients in 2006'
  95. UNGASS (2010) 'Japan Country Progress Report'
  96. UNGASS (2007) 'Country progress report: Japan'
  97. van Griensven, F and de Lind van Wijingaarden, J (2010) 'A review of the epidemiology of HIV infection and prevention responses among MSM in Asia' AIDS 24: Supplement 3, S30-S40
  98. UNODC (2009) 'Drug use in Afghanistan: 2009 survey'
  99. (2010, 13th July) 'Afghanistan: Ignorance about needles and HIV'
  100. (2010, 30th March) 'Afghanistan 2010 UNGASS Country Progress Report'
  101. UNODC (2009) 'Drug use in Afghanistan: 2009 survey'
  102. UNODC (2009) 'Drug use in Afghanistan: 2009 survey'
  103. (2010, 30th March) 'Afghanistan 2010 UNGASS Country Progress Report'
  104. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  105. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  106. UNAIDS (2011) 'UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011'
  107. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  108. New York Times (2007, June 8th), 'India, said to play down AIDS, has many fewer with virus than thought, study finds'
  109. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  110. UNGASS (2010) 'Nepal Country Progress Report'
  111. UNGASS (2008) 'Country progress report: Nepal'
  112. China View (2009, 27th August) 'Nepali gov't to upgrade AIDS preventive measures'
  113. UNAIDS (2011) 'UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011'
  114. UNGASS (2007) 'Country progress report: Pakistan'
  115. UNAIDS (2010) 'UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  116. UNAIDS (2008) 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic'
  117. UNAIDS (2010, 5th February) 'Lack of resources could undermine gains made in the HIV response in Pakistan'
  118. UNGASS (2010) 'Pakistan Country Progress Report'